[dcpp][Bidemare][Science][Eng] Stewart - Introduction to Physical Oceanography, Żeglarstwo, Skipper Library ...
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Introduction To
Physical Oceanography
Robert H. Stewart
Department of Oceanography
Texas A & M University
Copyright 1997–2000
ii
Contents
Preface
vii
1 A Voyage of Discovery 1
1.1 Physics of the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 The Big Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 The Historical Setting 7
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Eras of Oceanographic Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Milestones in the Understanding of the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Evolution of some Theoretical Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 The Role of Observations in Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Selecting Oceanic Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.7 Design of Oceanographic Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Accuracy, Precision, and Linearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 The Physical Setting 21
3.1 Oceans and Seas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Dimensions of the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Bathymetric Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4 Measuring the Depth of the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Bathymetric Charts and Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.6 Sound in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.7 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 Atmospheric Influences 39
4.1 The Earth in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 Atmospheric Wind Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 The Planetary Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4 Measurement of Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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CONTENTS
4.5 The Sampling Problem in Scatterometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6 Wind Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.7 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5 The Oceanic Heat Budget 53
5.1 The Oceanic Heat Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.2 Heat-Budget Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.3 Direct Calculation of Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4 Indirect Calculation of Fluxes: Bulk Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.5 Global Data Sets for Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.6 Geographic Distribution of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.7 Meridional Heat Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.8 Meridional Fresh Water Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.9 Variations in Solar Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.10 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6 Temperature, Salinity, and Density 77
6.1 Definition of Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 Definition of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 Geographical Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.4 The Oceanic Mixed Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.5 Potential Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.6 Measurement of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.7 Measurement of Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.8 Measurement of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.9 Temparature and Salinity With Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.10 Measurements of Mixed-Layer Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.11 Light in the ocean and absorption of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.12 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7 The Equations of Motion 107
7.1 Dominant Forces for Ocean Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2 Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3 Types of Flow in the ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.4 Conservation of Mass and Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.5 The Total Derivative (D/Dt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.6 Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.7 Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . 116
7.8 Calculation of Vertical Velocity Using Continuity . . . . . . . . . 118
7.9 Solutions to the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.10 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
CONTENTS
v
8 Equations of Motion With Viscosity 121
8.1 The Influence of Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.3 Calculation of Reynolds Stress: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.5 Mixing in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.6 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9 Response of the Upper Ocean to Winds 139
9.1 Inertial Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.2 Ekman Layer at the Sea Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3 Ekman Mass Transports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
9.4 Application of Ekman Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.5 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10 Geostrophic Currents 157
10.1 Hydrostatic Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2 Geostrophic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10.3 Surface Geostrophic Currents From Altimetry . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.4 Geostrophic Currents From Hydrography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
10.5 An Example Using Hydrographic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
10.6 Comments on Geostrophic Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.7 Currents From Hydrographic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
10.8 Lagrangean Measurements of Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.9 Eulerian Measurements of Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.10Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
11 Wind Driven Ocean Circulation 191
11.1 Sverdrup’s Theory of the Oceanic Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . 191
11.2 Western Boundary Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.3 Munk’s Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
11.4 Observed Circulation in the Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.5 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
12 Vorticity in the Ocean 209
12.1 Definitions of Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
12.2 Conservation of Vorticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
12.3 Vorticity and Ekman Pumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
12.4 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
13 Deep Circulation in the Ocean 221
13.1 Importance of the Thermohaline Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
13.2 Theory for the Thermohaline Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13.3 Observations of the Deep Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
13.4 Antarctic Circumpolar Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
13.5 Important Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
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